{ "version": 2, "scope": "An adult-nutrition learning map: core nutrients, food families, selected molecular examples and classification notes. These are not distinct molecules in every case, and this is not a complete inventory of the body or a supplement checklist. Family, component and context entries are not additional essential dietary requirements.", "groups": [ { "id": "water-choline", "name": "Water & choline", "shortName": "Water + choline", "description": "Two essential nutrients outside the conventional vitamin and mineral lists. Water is needed in large amounts and supplies no calories.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "water", "entries": [ { "id": "water", "symbol": "H₂O", "name": "Water", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential nutrient", "headline": "The medium of metabolism", "summary": "Forms body fluids, transports dissolved substances, lubricates tissues and supports temperature regulation.", "example": "Water comes from drinks, food and metabolic reactions.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002471.htm" ], "chapter": "food-map", "note": "Water is a macronutrient by quantity, but it does not supply calories.", "forms": "Water is the same H2O molecule in a glass or within food; this macronutrient provides volume without supplying calories.", "foodExamples": "Plain water, milk, soup, tea and the water contained in foods all contribute to total water intake.", "handling": "Water forms body fluids, carries dissolved substances and lubricates tissues; evaporation of sweat helps regulate body temperature.", "relatedIds": [ "sodium", "potassium", "chloride" ] }, { "id": "choline", "symbol": "Cho", "name": "Choline", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential nutrient", "headline": "Membranes, methyl groups and messages", "summary": "Used to make phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin and acetylcholine; also contributes methyl groups and supports lipid transport.", "example": "The body makes some choline, but normally needs a dietary contribution.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "note": "The body makes some choline, but dietary choline is still needed. It is not a fourteenth vitamin.", "relatedIds": [ "phospholipids", "b9", "b12" ], "forms": "Food supplies free choline and several choline-containing compounds, including water-soluble forms and the phospholipids phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin.", "foodExamples": "Eggs, fish, dairy, soybeans, other beans and cruciferous vegetables are examples of foods that contribute choline.", "handling": "Water-soluble forms enter portal blood toward the liver, while some intact fat-soluble forms enter chylomicrons and travel through lymph." } ], "chartNote": "Water supplies no calories. Choline sits outside the vitamin list." }, { "id": "fat-vitamins", "name": "Fat-soluble vitamins", "shortName": "Fat-soluble", "description": "A, D, E and K are the four fat-soluble vitamins. One vitamin entry may include several related chemical forms.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "fat-vitamin", "entries": [ { "id": "a", "symbol": "A", "name": "Vitamin A", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Vision and cell identity", "summary": "Retinoids support vision, immune function and the growth and differentiation of cells.", "example": "Retinal participates in rhodopsin, the light-sensitive protein in the retina.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/", "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-Consumer/", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222318/?report=reader" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "relatedIds": [ "carotenoids" ], "forms": "Vitamin A includes preformed retinoids and provitamin A carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, which the body can convert into vitamin A.", "foodExamples": "Eggs, dairy and fish supply preformed vitamin A; carrots, sweet potatoes and leafy greens supply provitamin A carotenoids.", "handling": "Much of the body's vitamin A reserve is stored in the liver as retinyl esters for later use." }, { "id": "d", "symbol": "D", "name": "Vitamin D", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Coordinates calcium", "summary": "After activation, supports calcium absorption and calcium–phosphate balance for bone mineralization.", "example": "Calcitriol is the active form, produced mainly through liver and kidney processing.", "note": "Vitamin D can also be synthesized in skin after ultraviolet exposure; it is still classified among the 13 vitamins. Its role is not evidence that extra intake always helps.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Vitamin D has two main dietary forms, D2 (ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholecalciferol), which follow the body's activation pathway.", "foodExamples": "Fatty fish provide vitamin D, with smaller amounts in egg yolks; some milks, plant drinks and cereals are fortified.", "handling": "The liver first converts vitamin D into calcidiol; a second conversion, mainly in the kidneys, produces the active hormone calcitriol.", "relatedIds": [ "calcium", "phosphorus", "sterols" ] }, { "id": "e", "symbol": "E", "name": "Vitamin E", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Protects lipids", "summary": "A fat-soluble antioxidant that helps protect cells from oxidative damage.", "example": "Alpha-tocopherol is the form recognized to meet human vitamin E needs.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminE-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Natural vitamin E comprises eight tocopherol and tocotrienol forms; alpha-tocopherol is the form recognized as meeting human vitamin E requirements.", "foodExamples": "Nuts, seeds and vegetable oils supply vitamin E, with additional contributions from leafy greens and some fortified cereals.", "handling": "After intestinal absorption, the liver preferentially returns alpha-tocopherol to circulation while metabolizing and excreting other vitamin E forms.", "relatedIds": [ "polyunsaturated", "c" ] }, { "id": "k", "symbol": "K", "name": "Vitamin K", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Activates selected proteins", "summary": "Required for modifying proteins involved in blood clotting and bone metabolism.", "example": "Vitamin K supports gamma-carboxylation of selected glutamate residues.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminK-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Vitamin K includes K1 (phylloquinone) and a family of K2 forms called menaquinones, which differ in their side chains.", "foodExamples": "Leafy greens and some vegetable oils supply K1; certain fermented foods and animal foods contribute differing amounts of K2.", "handling": "Following intestinal absorption, vitamin K travels in lipoproteins; its tissue reserves are relatively small compared with other fat-soluble vitamins.", "relatedIds": [ "phospholipids", "calcium" ] } ], "chartNote": "A, D, E and K." }, { "id": "water-vitamins", "name": "Water-soluble vitamins", "shortName": "Water-soluble", "description": "Eight B vitamins and vitamin C. Water-soluble does not mean unstored; vitamin B12 has substantial body stores.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "water-vitamin", "entries": [ { "id": "b1", "symbol": "B1", "name": "Thiamin", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Helps process fuel", "summary": "Its active form helps enzymes handle glucose, fats and amino acids.", "example": "Thiamin diphosphate (TDP), also called thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP).", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Thiamin-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Thiamin occurs free or with phosphate groups attached; thiamin diphosphate, also called TPP, is its main active cofactor form.", "foodExamples": "Whole grains, pork, fish and other meats contain thiamin; enriched or fortified breads and cereals can also contribute.", "handling": "Digestion releases free thiamin before small-intestinal uptake; the body keeps only small reserves, principally in the liver.", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "b2", "b3" ] }, { "id": "b2", "symbol": "B2", "name": "Riboflavin", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Builds electron carriers", "summary": "Provides the vitamin component of FAD and FMN, cofactors used in energy metabolism.", "example": "FAD and FMN participate in oxidation–reduction reactions.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Riboflavin-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Riboflavin occurs free or within FMN and FAD, the vitamin-containing cofactors that help enzymes transfer electrons during metabolism.", "foodExamples": "Milk, eggs and lean meats provide riboflavin, along with some vegetables and grain products enriched or fortified with it.", "handling": "Riboflavin is absorbed mainly in the first part of the small intestine, with small reserves in the liver, heart and kidneys.", "relatedIds": [ "b3", "b6", "atp" ] }, { "id": "b3", "symbol": "B3", "name": "Niacin", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Builds more electron carriers", "summary": "Precursor to NAD and NADP, used in fuel breakdown, biosynthesis and cellular maintenance.", "example": "NAD⁺/NADH and NADP⁺/NADPH transfer reducing equivalents.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Niacin-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Niacin is a collective name for nicotinic acid, nicotinamide and related compounds that can supply the vitamin's activity.", "foodExamples": "Poultry, beef, fish, nuts, legumes and grains supply niacin; enriched and fortified grain products are additional sources.", "handling": "Absorbed niacin is rebuilt into NAD and NADP; the liver can also make NAD from the amino acid tryptophan.", "relatedIds": [ "tryptophan", "b2", "atp" ] }, { "id": "b5", "symbol": "B5", "name": "Pantothenic acid", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Builds coenzyme A", "summary": "Needed to make coenzyme A and acyl carrier protein, which carry carbon groups during metabolism.", "example": "The CoA in acetyl-CoA depends on vitamin B5.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/PantothenicAcid-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Much food vitamin B5 is embedded in coenzyme A and related compounds; digestion releases pantothenic acid for reuse.", "foodExamples": "Mushrooms, poultry, eggs and whole grains are among the many plant and animal foods that supply pantothenic acid.", "handling": "After intestinal absorption, tissues use pantothenic acid to rebuild coenzyme A, supporting both fatty-acid breakdown and fatty-acid synthesis.", "relatedIds": [ "triglycerides", "atp" ] }, { "id": "b6", "symbol": "B6", "name": "Vitamin B6", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Handles amino acids", "summary": "Active B6 cofactors support amino-acid reactions, glycogen breakdown and neurotransmitter production.", "example": "Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) supports amino-group transfer.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB6-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Vitamin B6 is a family of six related forms, including pyridoxine; PLP and PMP are its active enzyme helpers.", "foodExamples": "Fish, poultry, chickpeas, potatoes and noncitrus fruits provide vitamin B6, and some breakfast cereals have it added.", "handling": "Phosphate groups are removed before uptake in the jejunum; cells use B6 cofactors for amino-acid reactions and glycogen breakdown.", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "glycogen" ] }, { "id": "b7", "symbol": "B7", "name": "Biotin", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Helps add carbon dioxide", "summary": "Cofactor for carboxylases in glucose, fatty-acid and amino-acid metabolism.", "example": "Pyruvate carboxylase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase use biotin.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Biotin-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Biotin occurs as free vitamin or attached to food proteins; digestion must release the bound vitamin before absorption.", "foodExamples": "Cooked eggs, fish, seeds, nuts and sweet potatoes are examples of foods contributing biotin to a mixed diet.", "handling": "Digestive enzymes release protein-bound biotin before small-intestinal absorption; the liver holds much of the body's stored biotin.", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "triglycerides", "protein" ] }, { "id": "b9", "symbol": "B9", "name": "Folate", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Transfers single-carbon units", "summary": "Folate cofactors carry single-carbon units needed for DNA production and amino-acid metabolism.", "example": "Tetrahydrofolate derivatives support nucleotide synthesis.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Folate-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Folate describes a family of related compounds; natural food folates differ chemically from folic acid commonly added during fortification.", "foodExamples": "Leafy greens, beans, peas and asparagus supply natural folates, while some breads and cereals contain added folic acid.", "handling": "Food folates are trimmed before intestinal absorption; circulating folate is mainly 5-MTHF, and the liver holds a substantial reserve.", "relatedIds": [ "b12", "choline", "methionine" ] }, { "id": "b12", "symbol": "B12", "name": "Vitamin B12", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Connects two key reactions", "summary": "Supports nervous-system function, red-blood-cell formation and DNA synthesis.", "example": "Cofactor for methionine synthase and methylmalonyl-CoA mutase.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "relatedIds": [ "cobalt", "b9", "methionine" ], "forms": "Vitamin B12 comprises cobalt-containing cobalamins; methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin are the two forms cells use as enzyme cofactors.", "foodExamples": "Fish, meat, eggs and dairy contain B12; some breakfast cereals and nutritional yeasts are fortified with it.", "handling": "Intrinsic factor normally enables uptake in the terminal ileum; despite being water-soluble, B12 can have body stores lasting years." }, { "id": "c", "symbol": "C", "name": "Vitamin C", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential vitamin", "headline": "Supports repair chemistry", "summary": "Required for collagen and carnitine synthesis; acts as an antioxidant and helps absorb nonheme iron.", "example": "Ascorbate supports collagen-building enzyme reactions.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Vitamin C is ascorbic acid, also called ascorbate in its ionized form; it is a water-soluble organic nutrient.", "foodExamples": "Citrus fruits, bell peppers, kiwifruit, strawberries and broccoli are familiar examples of foods that contribute vitamin C.", "handling": "The body controls vitamin C through intestinal absorption and kidney excretion; vitamin C also improves absorption of nonheme iron.", "relatedIds": [ "iron", "e", "carnitine" ] } ], "chartNote": "Eight B vitamins + vitamin C." }, { "id": "major-minerals", "name": "Major dietary minerals", "shortName": "Major minerals", "description": "Six established dietary mineral entries, needed in comparatively larger amounts. Sulfur has a separate special-case tile because it arrives mainly within other nutrients.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "major-mineral", "entries": [ { "id": "calcium", "symbol": "Ca", "name": "Calcium", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Structure and signaling", "summary": "A major part of bones and teeth; calcium ions also help muscles contract and cells communicate.", "example": "Intracellular calcium is a signal, while most body calcium is stored in the skeleton.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/", "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "searchTerms": "electrolyte electrolytes salt salts ions", "forms": "Calcium occurs in mineral compounds, including bone's calcium phosphate, and as dissolved ions involved in signaling and muscle contraction.", "foodExamples": "Milk, yogurt, calcium-set tofu, fish with edible bones and some fortified plant drinks are examples of calcium sources.", "handling": "Vitamin D supports active calcium absorption in the intestine; bones and teeth hold almost all of the body's calcium.", "relatedIds": [ "d", "phosphorus", "magnesium" ] }, { "id": "phosphorus", "symbol": "P", "name": "Phosphorus", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Phosphates for work and structure", "summary": "Present in bones, DNA, RNA, membranes and ATP. Phosphate transfer helps regulate enzymes.", "example": "ATP is adenosine triphosphate: its name includes its three phosphate groups.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Phosphorus-HealthProfessional/", "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "relatedIds": [ "atp", "phospholipids", "calcium", "d" ], "searchTerms": "electrolyte electrolytes salt salts ions", "forms": "Food phosphorus occurs in phosphates and organic compounds; plant seeds also hold some in phytate, which people digest less effectively.", "foodExamples": "Dairy, eggs, meat, fish, beans, nuts and whole grains are among the many foods that provide phosphorus.", "handling": "Phosphorus is absorbed in the small intestine; the kidneys, intestines and bones coordinate phosphate balance across the body." }, { "id": "magnesium", "symbol": "Mg", "name": "Magnesium", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Helps enzymes use energy", "summary": "Supports enzyme systems in glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation and protein synthesis.", "example": "Many reactions using ATP require magnesium.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/", "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "searchTerms": "electrolyte electrolytes salt salts ions", "forms": "Magnesium, symbol Mg, is a mineral used as charged ions in enzyme chemistry, including reactions involving ATP.", "foodExamples": "Leafy greens, beans, lentils, nuts, seeds and whole grains supply magnesium, with variable contributions from drinking water.", "handling": "Bone holds much of the body's magnesium, with most of the remainder in soft tissues; kidneys regulate urinary losses.", "relatedIds": [ "atp", "calcium", "potassium", "manganese" ] }, { "id": "sodium", "symbol": "Na", "name": "Sodium", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Fluid and electrical balance", "summary": "Helps maintain body-fluid balance and normal nerve and muscle function.", "example": "A major positively charged ion outside cells.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/sodium.html", "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/", "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002415.htm" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "searchTerms": "electrolyte electrolytes salt salts ions", "forms": "Sodium occurs in several food compounds; familiar table salt is sodium chloride, while baking soda supplies sodium as bicarbonate.", "foodExamples": "Table salt, soy sauce, breads, cheeses and prepared soups can supply sodium, with smaller natural contributions from foods such as milk.", "handling": "The kidneys adjust how much sodium leaves in urine, helping control fluid balance alongside sodium's roles in nerve and muscle function.", "relatedIds": [ "chloride", "potassium", "water" ] }, { "id": "potassium", "symbol": "K", "name": "Potassium", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Cellular electrical gradients", "summary": "Helps maintain fluid inside cells and the gradients used by nerves and muscles.", "example": "The sodium–potassium pump uses ATP to maintain ion gradients.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/", "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "searchTerms": "electrolyte electrolytes salt salts ions", "forms": "Potassium, symbol K, is a mineral electrolyte supplied by different food compounds; it is distinct from vitamin K.", "foodExamples": "Beans, lentils, potatoes, fruits, vegetables, milk and yogurt are examples of foods contributing potassium to a varied diet.", "handling": "Most body potassium is inside cells; intestinal absorption and kidney-controlled urinary losses help maintain the balance needed for electrical signaling.", "relatedIds": [ "sodium", "magnesium", "atp", "k" ] }, { "id": "chloride", "symbol": "Cl", "name": "Chloride", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Fluids and digestion", "summary": "Helps maintain body-fluid balance and is a component of stomach digestive juices.", "example": "Table salt provides sodium and chloride.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002417.htm", "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html", "https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/chloride-blood-test/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "searchTerms": "electrolyte electrolytes salt salts ions", "forms": "Chloride is an electrolyte supplied by salts such as sodium chloride and potassium chloride, with the salts separating into dissolved ions.", "foodExamples": "Table salt and foods made with it contribute chloride, which also occurs in foods such as tomatoes, celery and olives.", "handling": "Chloride helps balance body fluids and forms part of stomach acid; the body can remove excess chloride in urine.", "relatedIds": [ "sodium", "potassium", "water" ] } ], "chartNote": "Larger dietary quantities. Their dissolved ionic forms also act as electrolytes." }, { "id": "trace-minerals", "name": "Established trace minerals", "shortName": "Trace minerals", "description": "Seven established trace-mineral requirements. Trace describes the small quantity needed, not a smaller biological importance.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "trace-mineral", "entries": [ { "id": "iron", "symbol": "Fe", "name": "Iron", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Moves oxygen", "summary": "Iron in hemoglobin carries oxygen from lungs to tissues; myoglobin supports oxygen use in muscle.", "example": "Iron is part of oxygen-handling proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Dietary iron comes as heme and nonheme iron; plant and fortified foods supply nonheme, while animal foods can supply both.", "foodExamples": "Meat, seafood, beans, lentils, nuts and iron-fortified grain products provide iron in different amounts and chemical forms.", "handling": "Transferrin carries iron through blood; ferritin provides storage, while hepcidin helps regulate how much iron enters the circulation.", "relatedIds": [ "c", "copper", "protein" ] }, { "id": "zinc", "symbol": "Zn", "name": "Zinc", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Supports enzymes and construction", "summary": "Participates in many enzymes, DNA and protein synthesis, cell division and wound repair.", "example": "A catalytic and structural participant in cell chemistry.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Zinc, symbol Zn, is the mineral element incorporated into zinc-containing enzymes and structural proteins throughout the body.", "foodExamples": "Meat, seafood and dairy supply zinc, as do beans, nuts and whole grains, although the amount absorbed differs.", "handling": "Phytate in some plant foods can bind zinc and reduce absorption; intestinal uptake and losses help regulate the body's zinc balance.", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "phosphorus", "copper" ] }, { "id": "copper", "symbol": "Cu", "name": "Copper", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Supports enzyme reactions", "summary": "Copper-containing enzymes help energy production, iron handling and connective-tissue synthesis.", "example": "Ceruloplasmin is a copper-containing protein involved in iron metabolism.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Copper-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Copper, symbol Cu, is the trace element incorporated into cuproenzymes, the copper-containing proteins that carry out particular chemical reactions.", "foodExamples": "Shellfish, nuts, seeds, whole grains and chocolate are examples of copper sources, along with organ meats such as liver.", "handling": "Copper is absorbed in the upper small intestine; the liver helps regulate it by sending excess copper into bile.", "relatedIds": [ "iron", "zinc" ] }, { "id": "iodine", "symbol": "I", "name": "Iodine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Builds thyroid hormones", "summary": "A constituent of thyroid hormones, which help regulate metabolic activity and development.", "example": "Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) contain iodine.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Iodine occurs in food as iodide, iodate and other forms; iodate is converted to iodide before absorption.", "foodExamples": "Iodized salt, fish, other seafood, eggs and dairy can supply iodine, while amounts in seaweed vary widely.", "handling": "Absorbed iodide circulates to the thyroid, which concentrates it to make thyroid hormones; much of the remainder leaves in urine.", "relatedIds": [ "selenium" ] }, { "id": "selenium", "symbol": "Se", "name": "Selenium", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Builds selenoproteins", "summary": "Selenoproteins participate in thyroid-hormone metabolism and protection from oxidative damage.", "example": "Glutathione peroxidases are selenium-containing enzymes.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Selenium-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Food selenium is commonly incorporated into the amino acids selenomethionine and selenocysteine, rather than present as a separate free element.", "foodExamples": "Seafood, meat, eggs and grains provide selenium; Brazil nuts can be especially rich, and plant-food content varies with soil.", "handling": "The body processes absorbed selenium forms into intermediates used to build selenoproteins, while urinary excretion helps regulate selenium balance.", "relatedIds": [ "methionine", "cysteine", "iodine" ] }, { "id": "manganese", "symbol": "Mn", "name": "Manganese", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Supports metabolic enzymes", "summary": "A cofactor in enzymes handling nutrients, reactive oxygen species and tissue formation.", "example": "Manganese superoxide dismutase and arginase use manganese.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Manganese-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Manganese, symbol Mn, is a trace mineral used by selected enzymes; magnesium, symbol Mg, is a different mineral.", "foodExamples": "Whole grains, nuts, legumes, leafy vegetables and tea are examples of foods and drinks that contribute manganese.", "handling": "After intestinal uptake, manganese travels bound to blood proteins; the body regulates its balance largely through absorption and biliary excretion.", "relatedIds": [ "magnesium", "b7" ] }, { "id": "molybdenum", "symbol": "Mo", "name": "Molybdenum", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential mineral", "headline": "Helps process sulfur and purines", "summary": "Part of a cofactor required by enzymes that process sulfur-containing compounds and other molecules.", "example": "Sulfite oxidase and xanthine oxidase require a molybdenum cofactor.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Molybdenum-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "forms": "Molybdenum is a trace element assembled into the molybdenum cofactor, a reusable helper for a small group of enzymes.", "foodExamples": "Beans, lentils and other legumes supply molybdenum, as do whole grains, nuts, milk and organ meats such as liver.", "handling": "After uptake from the digestive tract, molybdenum enters tissue cofactors; the kidneys regulate its levels mainly through urinary excretion.", "relatedIds": [ "sulfur", "methionine" ] } ], "chartNote": "Small quantities; specific biological roles." }, { "id": "amino-acids", "name": "Indispensable amino acids", "shortName": "Amino acids", "description": "Nine amino acids require dietary supply. They are members of the larger amino-acid family, not the complete list of amino acids used by the body.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "amino-acid", "entries": [ { "id": "histidine", "symbol": "His", "name": "Histidine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "His (H) has the side group CH₂–imidazole. Its protonation depends strongly on pH and local environment; it is not always positively charged. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "isoleucine", "symbol": "Ile", "name": "Isoleucine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Ile (I) has the side group CH(CH₃)–CH₂–CH₃. A branched side chain with a second stereocenter. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "leucine", "symbol": "Leu", "name": "Leucine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Leu (L) has the side group CH₂–CH(CH₃)₂. A branched nonpolar side chain. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "lysine", "symbol": "Lys", "name": "Lysine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Lys (K) has the side group (CH₂)₄–NH₃⁺. Usually positively charged near physiological pH. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "methionine", "symbol": "Met", "name": "Methionine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "sulfur" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Met (M) has the side group CH₂–CH₂–S–CH₃. Contains sulfur in a thioether. This is different from cysteine’s thiol. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "phenylalanine", "symbol": "Phe", "name": "Phenylalanine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Phe (F) has the side group CH₂–phenyl. An aromatic side chain that is largely hydrophobic. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "threonine", "symbol": "Thr", "name": "Threonine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Thr (T) has the side group CH(OH)–CH₃. Its side chain includes a hydroxyl group. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "tryptophan", "symbol": "Trp", "name": "Tryptophan", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Trp (W) has the side group CH₂–indole. A bulky aromatic side chain, usually classed as largely nonpolar. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "valine", "symbol": "Val", "name": "Valine", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Indispensable amino acid", "headline": "Protein building block", "summary": "An indispensable amino acid used in proteins.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/" ], "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "chapter": "proteins", "forms": "Val (V) has the side group CH(CH₃)₂. A branched nonpolar side chain. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." } ], "chartNote": "Nine that adults cannot make in sufficient amounts." }, { "id": "fatty-acids", "name": "Essential fatty acids", "shortName": "Essential fats", "description": "LA and ALA are two specific polyunsaturated fatty acids. Omega-6 and omega-3 are family names, not individual nutrients.", "layer": "core", "colorKey": "fatty-acid", "entries": [ { "id": "linoleic-acid", "symbol": "LA", "name": "Linoleic acid", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential fatty acid", "headline": "The essential omega-6", "summary": "Linoleic acid is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid that humans must obtain from the diet.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/?redirect=false" ], "chapter": "fats", "relatedIds": [ "polyunsaturated", "triglycerides", "alpha-linolenic-acid" ], "forms": "LA is 18:2 omega-6, with two cis double bonds. It is both polyunsaturated and omega-6; the two labels answer different questions.", "foodExamples": "Many vegetable oils, nuts and seeds provide linoleic acid as part of mixed dietary lipids.", "handling": "LA contributes to membrane lipids and can supply material for longer omega-6 fatty acids. Humans cannot synthesize linoleic acid, so dietary supply is needed." }, { "id": "alpha-linolenic-acid", "symbol": "ALA", "name": "Alpha-linolenic acid", "status": "essential", "statusLabel": "Essential fatty acid", "headline": "The essential omega-3", "summary": "Alpha-linolenic acid is an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid that humans must obtain from the diet.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/?redirect=false" ], "chapter": "fats", "note": "EPA and DHA are other omega-3s. Conversion from ALA is limited; they are not additional universally indispensable adult fatty acids.", "relatedIds": [ "polyunsaturated", "triglycerides", "linoleic-acid" ], "forms": "ALA is 18:3 omega-3, with three cis double bonds. EPA (20:5) and DHA (22:6) are longer members of the omega-3 family.", "foodExamples": "Flax, chia, walnuts and some vegetable oils provide ALA. Fish and algae can supply the longer omega-3s EPA and DHA.", "handling": "ALA is a dietary essential. Conversion to EPA and DHA is limited, so sharing an omega family does not make these fatty acids interchangeable." } ], "chartNote": "Two essential fatty acids. Both polyunsaturated." }, { "id": "carbohydrate-families", "name": "Carbohydrate families", "shortName": "Carbohydrates", "description": "Different structures and digestive routes. Family membership is a chemical description, not a health rating.", "layer": "families", "colorKey": "carbohydrate", "entries": [ { "id": "sugars", "symbol": "Sug", "name": "Sugars", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Carbohydrate family", "headline": "One or two sugar units", "summary": "Sugars include single units (monosaccharides) and pairs (disaccharides). The adjacent tiles show familiar examples.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/interactivenutritionfactslabel/assets/InteractiveNFL_Glossary_October2021.pdf", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-2-carbohydrate-metabolism", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "note": "Glucose is an important body fuel, but the body can also make it; an individual sugar is not classified like an indispensable amino acid.", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "fructose", "galactose", "sucrose", "lactose", "maltose" ], "forms": "Monosaccharides are single sugars; disaccharides join two. These are structural categories. A food can contain both, alongside starch, fiber, fat and protein.", "foodExamples": "Fruit, milk and many other foods contain sugars. Sucrose is the sugar commonly used at the table; lactose occurs in milk.", "handling": "Disaccharides must be split before absorption. Glucose, galactose and fructose use different transport and processing routes; the liver helps handle the arriving supply." }, { "id": "starch", "symbol": "Sta", "name": "Starch", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Carbohydrate family", "headline": "Plants store glucose in chains", "summary": "Amylose is mostly unbranched; amylopectin is branched. Digestible starch supplies glucose.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/interactivenutritionfactslabel/assets/InteractiveNFL_Glossary_October2021.pdf", "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33530525/", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223591/" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "note": "Resistant starch escapes small-intestinal digestion and overlaps the fiber category.", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "fiber", "glycogen" ], "forms": "Amylose is mostly unbranched; amylopectin is branched. Both contain glucose, but their connections and arrangement influence how the material behaves.", "foodExamples": "Rice, potatoes, bread, beans and lentils can supply starch. Cooking, cooling and the surrounding food structure can alter its digestibility.", "handling": "Digestible starch supplies glucose. Resistant starch escapes some small-intestinal digestion and can reach the colon, where microbes may ferment it." }, { "id": "fiber", "symbol": "Fib", "name": "Dietary fiber", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Functional food category", "headline": "Digestibility, not simply chain length", "summary": "Dietary fiber includes nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin. Some fibers are fermented by microbes; their effects depend on structure and properties.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-food-labeling-and-critical-foods/questions-and-answers-dietary-fiber", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223591/", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK619141/table/ch2.tab2/?report=objectonly" ], "chapter": "fiber-world", "example": "Cellulose, pectins, oat/barley beta-glucans, inulin/fructans, resistant starch and psyllium show different combinations of properties.", "note": "Lignin is not a carbohydrate. Fiber has dietary guidance and important physiological roles; a family badge does not mean it is unnecessary. Fiber is not simply the biggest carbohydrate chain: digestibility matters, and some fibers are shorter oligosaccharides. Starch can also form very long chains.", "relatedIds": [ "starch", "glucose" ], "searchTerms": "soluble insoluble viscous nonviscous fermentable fermentation cellulose pectin beta-glucan inulin fructans resistant starch psyllium", "lenses": [ { "key": "solubility", "name": "Soluble / insoluble", "shortName": "In water", "description": "How readily a fiber dissolves in water." }, { "key": "viscosity", "name": "Viscous / nonviscous", "shortName": "Thickening", "description": "Whether it thickens the surrounding fluid under the conditions present." }, { "key": "fermentation", "name": "Fermentability", "shortName": "Microbial use", "description": "How readily gut microbes break it down. This is a spectrum." } ], "profiles": [ { "id": "cellulose", "name": "Cellulose", "example": "A structural part of plant cell walls.", "solubility": "Insoluble", "viscosity": "Nonviscous", "fermentation": "Generally limited; variable", "connection": "Cellulose and starch both contain glucose units. Their linkages differ, and human digestive enzymes do not break down cellulose.", "cites": [ 7, 64, 65 ] }, { "id": "pectin", "name": "Pectins", "example": "Found in the cell walls of fruits and other plants.", "solubility": "Usually soluble", "viscosity": "Can thicken or gel", "fermentation": "Readily fermented", "connection": "Pectin is a family, not one uniform substance. Its chemistry and the surrounding conditions affect gel formation.", "cites": [ 64, 65 ] }, { "id": "beta-glucan", "name": "Oat / barley β-glucans", "example": "Mixed-linkage beta-glucans in cereal cell walls.", "solubility": "Soluble fraction varies", "viscosity": "Can be viscous; depends on form", "fermentation": "Fermentable", "connection": "Processing can change how much dissolves and the size of its chains, changing viscosity. These descriptions do not apply to every fungal or yeast beta-glucan.", "cites": [ 64, 66 ] }, { "id": "inulin", "name": "Inulin / fructans", "example": "Examples occur in chicory and onions.", "solubility": "Generally soluble", "viscosity": "Usually low viscosity", "fermentation": "Readily fermented", "connection": "This is the useful counterexample: a soluble fiber can feed microbial fermentation without forming a thick gel.", "cites": [ 64, 65, 67 ] }, { "id": "resistant-starch", "name": "Resistant starch", "example": "Starch that escapes small-intestinal digestion.", "solubility": "Often insoluble (RS2 / RS3)", "viscosity": "Usually low (RS2 / RS3)", "fermentation": "Often substantial; varies by type", "connection": "Resistance describes digestion. Starch structure, food processing and the microbial community all influence what happens next.", "cites": [ 64, 65 ] }, { "id": "psyllium", "name": "Psyllium husk", "example": "A gel-forming, fiber-rich plant husk.", "solubility": "Soluble + insoluble fractions", "viscosity": "Viscous; gel-forming", "fermentation": "Relatively limited", "connection": "A second counterexample: forming a thick gel does not tell you how readily a fiber will be fermented.", "cites": [ 64 ] } ], "profileNote": "Typical properties, not fixed scores. Fiber form, chain size, food structure, processing and the gut community can change behavior. Whole foods contain mixtures; these examples do not predict an individual response.", "forms": "Solubility asks how fiber behaves in water. Viscosity asks whether it thickens. Fermentability asks whether microbes can break it down. These are overlapping properties.", "foodExamples": "Oats, beans, vegetables, fruit, whole grains, nuts and seeds provide different fiber mixtures. No single food stands for every fiber type.", "handling": "Fiber resists digestion in the small intestine. Microbes ferment some into short-chain fatty acids; the unfermented fraction and microbial biomass contribute to stool." } ] }, { "id": "protein-families", "name": "Protein family", "shortName": "Proteins", "description": "The food family that supplies amino acids for many structures and working molecules.", "layer": "families", "colorKey": "protein", "entries": [ { "id": "protein", "symbol": "Prt", "name": "Proteins", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Macronutrient family", "headline": "Amino-acid chains that fold", "summary": "Proteins are amino-acid chains folded into working structures. The standard protein alphabet has twenty amino acids: nine indispensable in adult diets and eleven the body can usually make.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26829/" ], "chapter": "proteins", "note": "A protein need not contain all twenty types. Its sequence, length and folding matter. The body needs an adequate overall supply of amino acids and nitrogen, including the nine indispensable amino acids.", "relatedIds": [ "histidine", "isoleucine", "leucine", "lysine", "methionine", "phenylalanine", "threonine", "tryptophan", "valine", "conditional-amino-acids", "glycine", "cysteine" ], "forms": "Proteins are ordered amino-acid chains. Chain length, sequence, folding, processing and assembly all matter; a short list of ingredients does not specify a working protein.", "foodExamples": "Beans, lentils, soy, dairy, eggs, fish, meat, nuts and seeds supply protein. Foods differ in amino-acid proportions and digestibility.", "handling": "Digestion supplies amino acids and small peptides. Absorbed and recycled amino acids join a shared supply for synthesis and other metabolism, with no dedicated surplus-protein tank." } ] }, { "id": "lipid-families", "name": "Lipid families & structures", "shortName": "Lipids", "description": "Storage structures, membranes, saturation and geometry describe different features and can overlap.", "layer": "families", "colorKey": "lipid", "entries": [ { "id": "triglycerides", "symbol": "TAG", "name": "Triglycerides", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Storage-lipid family", "headline": "Three fatty acids on glycerol", "summary": "Most dietary fat and stored body fat is triglyceride: a glycerol backbone joined to three fatty-acid chains.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/organic-chemistry/pages/27-1-waxes-fats-and-oils", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK305896/" ], "chapter": "fats", "note": "The three chains need not be identical.", "relatedIds": [ "saturated", "monounsaturated", "polyunsaturated", "phospholipids" ], "forms": "Triacylglycerol and triglyceride name the same structure: glycerol attached to three fatty acids. Mono- and diacylglycerols have one and two fatty-acyl tails.", "foodExamples": "Oils, butter, nuts, seeds and many animal foods contain triglycerides with mixtures of fatty-acid tails.", "handling": "Digestion releases fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. Intestinal cells rebuild much of the long-chain triglyceride and package it in chylomicrons for lymph, then blood." }, { "id": "saturated", "symbol": "SFA", "name": "Saturated fatty acids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Fatty-acid family", "headline": "No carbon-carbon double bonds", "summary": "Saturated fatty-acid chains have no carbon-carbon double bonds.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/small-entity-compliance-guide-trans-fatty-acids-nutrition-labeling-nutrient-content-claims-and" ], "chapter": "fats", "example": "Palmitic and stearic acids.", "note": "Saturation describes bond structure; it does not summarize the nutritional profile of a whole food.", "relatedIds": [ "triglycerides", "monounsaturated", "polyunsaturated", "cis" ], "forms": "Saturation means no carbon–carbon double bonds in a fatty-acid chain. It does not mean the chain has no flexibility, or that an entire food contains only one fatty acid.", "foodExamples": "Butter, coconut oil, meat and dairy fat contain saturated fatty acids in differing proportions. Foods also contain other fatty-acid types.", "handling": "After digestion and transport, fatty acids can be oxidized, stored or used in other lipids. Saturation is a structural feature, not a destination label." }, { "id": "monounsaturated", "symbol": "MUFA", "name": "Monounsaturated fatty acids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Fatty-acid family", "headline": "One carbon-carbon double bond", "summary": "A monounsaturated fatty-acid chain has one carbon-carbon double bond.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/small-entity-compliance-guide-trans-fatty-acids-nutrition-labeling-nutrient-content-claims-and" ], "chapter": "fats", "example": "Oleic acid.", "relatedIds": [ "triglycerides", "trans", "cis", "polyunsaturated" ], "forms": "A monounsaturated fatty acid has one carbon–carbon double bond. Geometry and omega position add information; oleic acid is a cis omega-9 example.", "foodExamples": "Olive oil, avocados and many nuts contain monounsaturated fatty acids alongside other kinds.", "handling": "These fatty acids can enter fuel pathways or become parts of storage and membrane lipids. A shared bond count does not make every monounsaturated molecule identical." }, { "id": "polyunsaturated", "symbol": "PUFA", "name": "Polyunsaturated fatty acids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Contains essential members", "headline": "More than one double bond", "summary": "Polyunsaturated fatty-acid chains have two or more carbon-carbon double bonds. LA and ALA belong to this group.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/small-entity-compliance-guide-trans-fatty-acids-nutrition-labeling-nutrient-content-claims-and", "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/?redirect=false" ], "chapter": "fats", "note": "Omega numbering locates the first double bond from the methyl end. It is a second classification, alongside saturation.", "relatedIds": [ "linoleic-acid", "alpha-linolenic-acid", "triglycerides", "cis" ], "forms": "Polyunsaturated means at least two carbon–carbon double bonds. Omega-3 and omega-6 specify the first double bond from the methyl end, so a fatty acid can be both polyunsaturated and omega-3, or both polyunsaturated and omega-6.", "foodExamples": "Seeds, nuts, vegetable oils and fish provide different polyunsaturated fatty acids. The specific mix matters to the name, even within one omega family.", "handling": "Polyunsaturated fatty acids contribute to membranes, storage and signaling precursors as well as energy metabolism. LA and ALA are dietary essentials." }, { "id": "trans", "symbol": "Trans", "name": "Trans fatty acids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Double-bond geometry", "headline": "A different arrangement", "summary": "Trans describes the arrangement around a carbon-carbon double bond in an unsaturated fatty acid.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/small-entity-compliance-guide-trans-fatty-acids-nutrition-labeling-nutrient-content-claims-and" ], "chapter": "fats", "note": "Trans is a geometry label, not a fourth double-bond-count category. It can overlap mono- and polyunsaturated structures.", "relatedIds": [ "monounsaturated", "polyunsaturated", "cis" ], "forms": "Trans geometry places groups differently around a double bond. A trans fatty acid still has that double bond and therefore remains unsaturated.", "foodExamples": "Some trans fats arise in ruminant foods; industrial partial hydrogenation can also produce them. These are origin distinctions, not different definitions of trans.", "handling": "Trans and cis chains can share a formula and double-bond count while differing in geometry. The builder compares oleic and elaidic acid to isolate this structural change." }, { "id": "phospholipids", "symbol": "PL", "name": "Phospholipids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Membrane-lipid family", "headline": "A major part of cell membranes", "summary": "Phospholipids are phosphate-containing lipids. Their water-interacting and water-avoiding regions help organize cell membranes.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26871/", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26883/" ], "chapter": "fats", "example": "Phosphatidylcholine is one member.", "note": "Choline is an essential nutrient used to make particular phospholipids; the whole lipid family is not one extra essential nutrient.", "relatedIds": [ "choline", "phosphorus", "triglycerides", "sterols" ], "forms": "A phosphate-bearing region interacts with water while other regions avoid it. Glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelin have different backbones; the builder uses one glycerol-based example.", "foodExamples": "Eggs, soybeans and cell-containing foods supply phospholipids. The body also synthesizes them.", "handling": "Phospholipids help form cell membranes and lipoprotein surfaces. Their components are digested, absorbed and reused; a dietary membrane does not simply become an intact body membrane." }, { "id": "sterols", "symbol": "Stl", "name": "Sterols", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Ring-structured lipid family", "headline": "Lipids with a different skeleton", "summary": "Cholesterol is a sterol used in cells and as a precursor to steroid hormones, bile acids and vitamin D.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/cholesterol.html", "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK305896/" ], "chapter": "fats", "note": "The body makes cholesterol. Having an important body function does not make dietary cholesterol essential.", "relatedIds": [ "phytosterols", "d", "phospholipids" ], "forms": "Sterols have a ring-based structure. Cholesterol is the principal animal sterol; phytosterols are related plant molecules. Neither is a three-tailed triglyceride.", "foodExamples": "Animal foods can supply cholesterol; plant foods supply phytosterols. Humans also synthesize cholesterol.", "handling": "Cholesterol contributes to membranes, bile acids and steroid molecules. Lipoproteins carry it through blood; LDL and HDL describe particles, not separate cholesterol chemicals." }, { "id": "cis", "symbol": "Cis", "name": "Cis fatty acids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Double-bond geometry", "headline": "Substituents on the same side", "summary": "Cis describes the arrangement around a carbon-carbon double bond in an unsaturated fatty acid. The carbon-chain segments lie on the same side of that bond.", "note": "Cis and trans describe geometry. Mono- and polyunsaturated describe how many double bonds there are; these classifications overlap.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-3-lipids" ], "chapter": "fats", "relatedIds": [ "trans", "monounsaturated", "polyunsaturated" ], "forms": "Cis describes geometry around a double bond. Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids have cis double bonds; a chain can have more than one.", "foodExamples": "Oleic acid in olive oil and linoleic acid in many seed oils are cis examples with different double-bond counts.", "handling": "The geometry influences a chain’s shape and packing. It is separate from chain length, saturation count and the omega family." } ] }, { "id": "phytochemical-families", "name": "Selected plant-compound families", "shortName": "Plant compounds", "description": "A few useful examples, not a complete catalog. These labels can overlap nutrient chemistry and do not establish a health benefit for every member.", "layer": "families", "colorKey": "plant", "entries": [ { "id": "polyphenols", "symbol": "Pph", "name": "Polyphenols", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Selected phytochemical family", "headline": "Many plant compounds, many structures", "summary": "A broad group of plant-associated compounds that includes flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/polyphenol", "https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=285399" ], "chapter": "food-map", "example": "Flavonoids include anthocyanin pigments.", "note": "Polyphenols are not one essential nutrient. Chemical activity in a laboratory does not establish a dietary health benefit." }, { "id": "carotenoids", "symbol": "Car", "name": "Carotenoids", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Some supply vitamin A", "headline": "Pigments with different roles", "summary": "Some carotenoids can be converted into vitamin A; others cannot. Only provitamin A carotenoids contribute to vitamin A supply.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "food-map", "example": "Beta-carotene can supply vitamin A. Lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin cannot.", "relatedIds": [ "a" ] }, { "id": "glucosinolates", "symbol": "Gsl", "name": "Glucosinolates", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Selected phytochemical family", "headline": "Sulfur compounds in cruciferous plants", "summary": "Preparation, chewing and digestion can break glucosinolates into compounds such as indoles and isothiocyanates.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cruciferous-vegetables-fact-sheet" ], "chapter": "food-map", "example": "Found in plants such as broccoli and cabbage.", "note": "This chemistry is not proof that a particular food or isolated compound prevents cancer.", "relatedIds": [ "allium-sulfur", "sulfur" ] }, { "id": "allium-sulfur", "symbol": "All", "name": "Allium sulfur compounds", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Selected phytochemical group", "headline": "Chemistry changes when garlic is cut", "summary": "Garlic contains sulfur compounds whose forms change when its tissue is cut or crushed. Allicin is one familiar example.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-HE20_3000-PURL-LPS99722/pdf/GOVPUB-HE20_3000-PURL-LPS99722.pdf" ], "chapter": "food-map", "note": "This is a food-source grouping, not every organosulfur compound. Glucosinolates are also sulfur-containing compounds.", "relatedIds": [ "glucosinolates", "sulfur" ] }, { "id": "phytosterols", "symbol": "Pst", "name": "Phytosterols", "status": "family", "statusLabel": "Plant-sterol family", "headline": "Sterols made by plants", "summary": "Phytosterols are plant sterols found in plant-cell structures and plant foods.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=349582" ], "chapter": "food-map", "note": "They overlap the sterol family. Their presence in food does not make them an established essential human nutrient.", "relatedIds": [ "sterols" ] } ] }, { "id": "mineral-context", "name": "Mineral classification details", "shortName": "Mineral context", "description": "Required elements, useful exposures and disputed essentiality need different labels.", "layer": "context", "colorKey": "context", "entries": [ { "id": "sulfur", "symbol": "S", "name": "Sulfur", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Required within other nutrients", "headline": "Sulfur arrives within other nutrients", "summary": "Sulfur occurs in methionine and cysteine. Their breakdown supplies sulfate for building sulfated compounds.", "example": "There is no separate dietary sulfate requirement when sulfur-amino-acid needs are met.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10925/chapter/9" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "note": "Sulfur is often listed as a major mineral. Methionine and cysteine supply much of the sulfate used in metabolism; this is not a separate elemental sulfur target.", "relatedIds": [ "methionine", "conditional-amino-acids", "molybdenum" ] }, { "id": "cobalt", "symbol": "Co", "name": "Cobalt", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Required within vitamin B12", "headline": "Count the vitamin, not a second requirement", "summary": "Cobalt is a constituent of vitamin B12. Its essential nutritional role is covered by the requirement for that vitamin.", "example": "See the vitamin B12 card.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "relatedIds": [ "b12" ], "note": "Cobalt in vitamin B12 is not interchangeable with consuming elemental cobalt or other cobalt compounds." }, { "id": "fluoride", "symbol": "F", "name": "Fluoride", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Beneficial; not essential", "headline": "Dental benefit is a distinct category", "summary": "Fluoride helps prevent tooth decay. This benefit is distinct from being essential for human growth or having a recognized deficiency disease.", "example": "It can appear in nutrient reference tables even though essentiality has not been established.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Fluoride-HealthProfessional/", "https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3332" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "note": "A nutrient can have an Adequate Intake reference value for a benefit without being classified as essential." }, { "id": "chromium", "symbol": "Cr", "name": "Chromium", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Essentiality disputed", "headline": "An older classification is still debated", "summary": "The US Food and Nutrition Board classified chromium as essential in 2001 and has not re-evaluated it. EFSA found no convincing evidence of an essential human requirement.", "example": "The US classification dates to 2001; EFSA reassessed essentiality in 2014.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Chromium-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "nutrients", "note": "Essentiality remains unsettled despite its appearance in some nutrient-reference tables." } ] }, { "id": "body-context", "name": "Synthesis & conditional needs", "shortName": "Made in the body", "description": "Some important molecules are synthesized by the body. Conditional dietary need depends on the molecule and the physiological setting.", "layer": "context", "colorKey": "body", "entries": [ { "id": "conditional-amino-acids", "symbol": "CAA", "name": "Conditionally essential amino acids", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Depends on physiological context", "headline": "Sometimes synthesis does not cover demand", "summary": "Ordinarily synthesizable amino acids can require a dietary source in particular physiological or illness states.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "example": "Examples include arginine, cysteine, glutamine and tyrosine.", "note": "This is not a fixed extra requirement for every healthy adult, or a label for everyday psychological stress.", "relatedIds": [ "arginine", "cysteine", "glutamine", "glycine", "proline", "serine", "tyrosine" ] }, { "id": "carnitine", "symbol": "Carn", "name": "Carnitine", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Usually made; conditional need", "headline": "Helps move long-chain fatty acids", "summary": "Carnitine helps transport long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria. Healthy adults generally synthesize enough.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Carnitine-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "fats", "note": "Dietary need can become important in specific conditions. A role in fatty-acid transport does not by itself establish a fat-loss benefit.", "relatedIds": [ "triglycerides", "lysine", "methionine" ] }, { "id": "atp", "symbol": "ATP", "name": "ATP", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Body-made energy carrier", "headline": "A molecule cells continually regenerate", "summary": "ATP helps couple energy-releasing reactions to cellular work. Cells continually use and regenerate it.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/6-4-atp-adenosine-triphosphate" ], "chapter": "energy", "note": "ATP is central to metabolism, but it is not an essential dietary nutrient or a long-term fuel store.", "relatedIds": [ "phosphorus", "magnesium", "creatine" ] }, { "id": "glycogen", "symbol": "Glyc", "name": "Glycogen", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Body-made glucose store", "headline": "A branched store of glucose", "summary": "The body builds glycogen from glucose, especially in liver and muscle. Liver glycogen can support blood glucose; muscle glycogen mainly supports that muscle.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-2-carbohydrate-metabolism", "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "note": "Glycogen and plant starch are related storage carbohydrates, but they are not the same structure or dietary requirement.", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "starch" ], "forms": "Glycogen is a highly branched glucose polymer. Most connections are α(1→4), with α(1→6) bonds at branch points.", "foodExamples": "Glycogen is shown here as a body-made glucose store, not a separate essential food requirement.", "handling": "Liver glycogen helps support blood glucose. Muscle glycogen is a local reserve for that muscle’s work; the two stores have different jobs." }, { "id": "creatine", "symbol": "Crtn", "name": "Creatine", "status": "context", "statusLabel": "Body-made; also found in food", "headline": "Supports rapid ATP regeneration", "summary": "The body makes creatine from amino-acid precursors. Phosphocreatine helps regenerate ATP, particularly during brief, intense demands.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/ExerciseAndAthleticPerformance-HealthProfessional/" ], "chapter": "energy", "note": "Creatine is not one of the nine indispensable amino acids. Creatinine is a different molecule: a breakdown product excreted in urine.", "relatedIds": [ "atp", "methionine" ] } ] }, { "id": "monosaccharides", "name": "Monosaccharides · single sugars", "shortName": "Single sugars", "colorKey": "carbohydrate", "description": "Selected single sugar units. These are examples within the sugar family, not three extra dietary essentials.", "layer": "components", "entries": [ { "id": "glucose", "symbol": "Glc", "name": "Glucose", "headline": "A common fuel and building unit", "summary": "Glucose is a single sugar. Starch and glycogen are built from glucose units.", "relatedIds": [ "starch", "glycogen", "sucrose", "lactose", "maltose", "sugars" ], "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Monosaccharide · one sugar unit", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "forms": "One sugar unit. Starch digestion supplies glucose, and glucose is also present in foods such as fruit. Glucose, fructose and galactose share the formula C₆H₁₂O₆ but arrange atoms differently.", "foodExamples": "Glucose occurs in fruits and honey and is released when digestible starch is broken down.", "handling": "Absorbed glucose reaches portal blood and the liver, then other tissues. It can support ATP regeneration, glycogen storage and synthesis." }, { "id": "fructose", "symbol": "Fru", "name": "Fructose", "headline": "One of the pieces in sucrose", "summary": "Fructose is a single sugar. It has the same molecular formula as glucose but a different arrangement of atoms.", "relatedIds": [ "sucrose", "glucose", "sugars" ], "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Monosaccharide · one sugar unit", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "forms": "One sugar unit with a different arrangement from glucose. Glucose and fructose are the two units in sucrose. Glucose, fructose and galactose share the formula C₆H₁₂O₆ but arrange atoms differently.", "foodExamples": "Fruit and honey contain fructose. Sucrose also provides fructose when its bond is split.", "handling": "This single sugar can be absorbed without first splitting a sugar–sugar bond. It reaches portal blood; intestinal and liver processing help integrate its carbon into metabolism." }, { "id": "galactose", "symbol": "Gal", "name": "Galactose", "headline": "One of the pieces in lactose", "summary": "Galactose is a single sugar. Joined to glucose, it forms lactose.", "relatedIds": [ "lactose", "glucose", "sugars" ], "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Monosaccharide · one sugar unit", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "forms": "One sugar unit. In lactose, galactose is linked to glucose; digestion separates them. Glucose, fructose and galactose share the formula C₆H₁₂O₆ but arrange atoms differently.", "foodExamples": "Much dietary galactose comes from digestion of lactose in milk and milk products.", "handling": "This single sugar can be absorbed without first splitting a sugar–sugar bond. It reaches portal blood; intestinal and liver processing help integrate its carbon into metabolism." } ] }, { "id": "disaccharides", "name": "Disaccharides · paired sugars", "shortName": "Paired sugars", "colorKey": "carbohydrate", "description": "Two sugar units joined by a glycosidic bond. Digestion separates them before absorption.", "layer": "components", "entries": [ { "id": "sucrose", "symbol": "Suc", "name": "Sucrose", "headline": "Glucose + fructose", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "fructose", "sugars" ], "summary": "Sucrose joins two single sugars: glucose and fructose.", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Disaccharide · two sugar units", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "forms": "Glucose + Fructose form this two-sugar combination. α(1↔2)β describes the connecting bond.", "foodExamples": "Sucrose occurs in many plants and is the sugar commonly used at the table.", "handling": "Enzymes at the small-intestinal surface split this disaccharide into single sugars before absorption. The products can then enter portal blood." }, { "id": "lactose", "symbol": "Lac", "name": "Lactose", "headline": "Glucose + galactose", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "galactose", "sugars" ], "summary": "Lactose joins two single sugars: glucose and galactose.", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Disaccharide · two sugar units", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "forms": "Galactose + Glucose form this two-sugar combination. β(1→4) describes the connecting bond.", "foodExamples": "Lactose is the characteristic sugar in milk; amounts differ across milk products.", "handling": "Lactase splits lactose at the intestinal surface. Lower lactase activity leaves more lactose available to colonic microbes; digestion depends on the person and the amount." }, { "id": "maltose", "symbol": "Mal", "name": "Maltose", "headline": "Glucose + glucose", "relatedIds": [ "glucose", "starch", "sugars" ], "summary": "Maltose joins two single sugars: glucose and glucose.", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Disaccharide · two sugar units", "sourceUrls": [ "https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates", "https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/23-7-chemical-digestion-and-absorption-a-closer-look" ], "chapter": "carbohydrates", "forms": "Glucose + Glucose form this two-sugar combination. α(1→4) describes the connecting bond.", "foodExamples": "Maltose occurs during starch breakdown, including in germinated grains and malted foods.", "handling": "Enzymes at the small-intestinal surface split this disaccharide into single sugars before absorption. The products can then enter portal blood." } ] }, { "id": "other-amino-acids", "name": "Other standard amino acids", "shortName": "Usually synthesized", "colorKey": "amino-acid", "description": "The other eleven of the twenty standard protein amino acids. Adults can usually synthesize these; a dietary need can arise for some in particular physiological settings. “Nonessential” does not mean unused or unimportant.", "layer": "components", "entries": [ { "id": "alanine", "symbol": "Ala", "name": "Alanine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Alanine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Ala (A) has the side group CH₃. A small nonpolar methyl side chain. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "arginine", "symbol": "Arg", "name": "Arginine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Arginine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Arg (R) has the side group (CH₂)₃–guanidinium. Usually positively charged near physiological pH. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "asparagine", "symbol": "Asn", "name": "Asparagine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Asparagine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Asn (N) has the side group CH₂–CONH₂. An uncharged amide side chain in the usual physiological context. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "aspartate", "symbol": "Asp", "name": "Aspartic acid", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Aspartic acid is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Asp (D) has the side group CH₂–COO⁻. Usually negatively charged near physiological pH. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "cysteine", "symbol": "Cys", "name": "Cysteine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Cysteine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Cys (C) has the side group CH₂–SH. Its thiol can form a disulfide bond with another cysteine under suitable conditions. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "glutamate", "symbol": "Glu", "name": "Glutamic acid", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Glutamic acid is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Glu (E) has the side group CH₂–CH₂–COO⁻. Usually negatively charged near physiological pH. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "glutamine", "symbol": "Gln", "name": "Glutamine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Glutamine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Gln (Q) has the side group CH₂–CH₂–CONH₂. An amide side chain with one more methylene group than asparagine. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "glycine", "symbol": "Gly", "name": "Glycine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Glycine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Gly (G) has the side group H. The smallest side group. Glycine has no chiral alpha carbon and gives the backbone unusual flexibility. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "proline", "symbol": "Pro", "name": "Proline", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Proline is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Pro (P) has the side group Ring to backbone N. The side chain reconnects to the backbone nitrogen, restricting its geometry. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "serine", "symbol": "Ser", "name": "Serine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Serine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Ser (S) has the side group CH₂–OH. Its hydroxyl group can participate in hydrogen bonding. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." }, { "id": "tyrosine", "symbol": "Tyr", "name": "Tyrosine", "status": "component", "statusLabel": "Standard amino acid · usually synthesized", "headline": "Part of the protein alphabet", "summary": "Tyrosine is one of the twenty standard protein amino acids.", "note": "Usually synthesized by the body. See the conditional-needs entry for the nutritional qualification.", "sourceUrls": [ "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/", "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" ], "chapter": "proteins", "relatedIds": [ "protein", "conditional-amino-acids" ], "forms": "Tyr (Y) has the side group CH₂–phenyl–OH. An aromatic side chain with a polar hydroxyl group. Categories describe tendencies, not absolute behavior. Side-group chemistry is a separate classification from whether dietary supply is indispensable.", "foodExamples": "This amino acid occurs within food proteins, alongside other amino acids. Protein-rich foods supply mixtures; no single food belongs exclusively to one amino acid.", "handling": "Absorbed and recycled amino acids can be assembled into new proteins according to cellular instructions. Their side groups influence interactions and folding; a particular mixture alone does not specify a protein." } ] } ], "organization": [ { "id": "foundation", "name": "Water & choline", "caption": "Two nutrients that deserve their own place.", "blocks": [ { "id": "water-choline", "title": "Water + choline", "column": 1, "span": 2, "ids": [ "water", "choline" ] } ], "note": { "column": 3, "span": 11, "title": "Small pieces. A connected whole.", "text": "Read across each family. Then open a tile to find its role, relatives and references. A shared color means related chemistry—not the same dietary requirement." } }, { "id": "carbohydrates", "name": "Carbohydrates", "caption": "Single sugars → joined sugars → larger structures.", "blocks": [ { "id": "single-sugars", "title": "One sugar unit", "column": 1, "span": 3, "ids": [ "glucose", "fructose", "galactose" ] }, { "id": "paired-sugars", "title": "Two sugar units", "column": 4, "span": 3, "ids": [ "sucrose", "lactose", "maltose" ] }, { "id": "carb-families", "title": "Broader families", "column": 7, "span": 3, "ids": [ "sugars", "starch", "fiber" ] }, { "id": "glucose-store", "colorKey": "carbohydrate", "title": "Body store", "column": 10, "span": 1, "ids": [ "glycogen" ] } ], "note": { "column": 11, "span": 3, "title": "Length is one question.", "text": "Digestion is another. Fiber is not simply the longest chain; starch can be very long too.", "source": "https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-food-labeling-and-critical-foods/questions-and-answers-dietary-fiber" } }, { "id": "lipids", "name": "Fats & lipids", "caption": "Structure, double-bond count and geometry are different ways to sort.", "blocks": [ { "id": "lipid-structures", "title": "Molecular structure", "column": 1, "span": 3, "ids": [ "triglycerides", "phospholipids", "sterols" ] }, { "id": "fat-saturation", "title": "Double-bond count", "column": 4, "span": 3, "ids": [ "saturated", "monounsaturated", "polyunsaturated" ] }, { "id": "fat-geometry", "title": "Bond geometry", "column": 7, "span": 2, "ids": [ "cis", "trans" ] }, { "id": "essential-fats", "title": "Essential fatty acids", "column": 9, "span": 2, "ids": [ "linoleic-acid", "alpha-linolenic-acid" ] } ], "note": { "column": 11, "span": 3, "title": "Labels can overlap.", "text": "LA and ALA are both polyunsaturated. Omega-6 and omega-3 locate the first double bond from the methyl end: another way to classify fatty acids.", "source": "https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/" } }, { "id": "proteins", "name": "Proteins & amino acids", "caption": "Twenty standard building blocks. Many possible sequences.", "blocks": [ { "id": "protein-family", "title": "The family", "column": 1, "span": 1, "ids": [ "protein" ] }, { "id": "essential-amino", "title": "Nine indispensable amino acids", "column": 2, "span": 9, "ids": [ "histidine", "isoleucine", "leucine", "lysine", "methionine", "phenylalanine", "threonine", "tryptophan", "valine" ] }, { "id": "other-amino", "title": "Eleven the body can usually make", "column": 1, "span": 11, "row": 2, "ids": [ "alanine", "arginine", "asparagine", "aspartate", "cysteine", "glutamate", "glutamine", "glycine", "proline", "serine", "tyrosine" ] }, { "id": "conditional-amino", "colorKey": "amino-acid", "title": "The qualification", "column": 12, "span": 2, "row": 2, "ids": [ "conditional-amino-acids" ] } ], "note": { "column": 11, "span": 3, "title": "9 + 11 = 20.", "text": "“Essential” describes dietary supply. “Nonessential” does not mean unimportant. Some needs depend on the physiological setting.", "source": "https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm" } }, { "id": "vitamins", "name": "Vitamins", "caption": "Thirteen vitamin entries, grouped by solubility.", "blocks": [ { "id": "fat-vitamins", "title": "Fat-soluble · A, D, E, K", "column": 1, "span": 4, "ids": [ "a", "d", "e", "k" ] }, { "id": "water-vitamins", "title": "Water-soluble · eight B vitamins + C", "column": 5, "span": 9, "ids": [ "b1", "b2", "b3", "b5", "b6", "b7", "b9", "b12", "c" ] } ] }, { "id": "minerals", "name": "Minerals & electrolytes", "caption": "“Major” and “trace” refer to quantities, not importance.", "blocks": [ { "id": "major-minerals", "title": "Major dietary minerals", "column": 1, "span": 6, "ids": [ "calcium", "phosphorus", "magnesium", "sodium", "potassium", "chloride" ] }, { "id": "trace-minerals", "title": "Established trace minerals", "column": 7, "span": 7, "ids": [ "iron", "zinc", "copper", "iodine", "selenium", "manganese", "molybdenum" ] } ], "connection": { "title": "Where do salts and electrolytes fit?", "text": "Salt is a compound; an electrolyte carries charge in solution. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium and phosphate have electrolyte roles. Phosphorus is the nutrient label; phosphate is an ionic form. Bicarbonate is another body electrolyte, not an extra essential mineral.", "source": "https://medlineplus.gov/fluidandelectrolytebalance.html" } }, { "id": "plants", "name": "Plant compounds", "caption": "Selected families in food, with overlapping chemistry.", "blocks": [ { "id": "plant-families", "title": "Phytochemical families", "column": 1, "span": 5, "ids": [ "polyphenols", "carotenoids", "glucosinolates", "allium-sulfur", "phytosterols" ] } ], "note": { "column": 6, "span": 8, "title": "A family can cross the map.", "text": "Phytosterols are also lipids. Some carotenoids supply vitamin A. Polyphenols include flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans. These are selected families, not a list of universal dietary essentials." } }, { "id": "context", "name": "Special cases & body-made compounds", "caption": "Useful connections, with their qualifications kept visible.", "blocks": [ { "id": "mineral-context", "title": "Elemental context", "column": 1, "span": 4, "ids": [ "sulfur", "cobalt", "fluoride", "chromium" ] }, { "id": "body-context", "title": "Made in the body", "column": 5, "span": 3, "ids": [ "carnitine", "atp", "creatine" ] } ], "note": { "column": 8, "span": 6, "title": "The label matters.", "text": "Sulfur and cobalt occur within other required nutrients. Fluoride has a dental benefit; chromium’s essentiality is disputed. A body-made molecule can be important without being a separate dietary requirement." } } ], "title": "The Nutrient Atlas · Carbon Atlas", "verifiedOn": "2026-09-11", "author": "Shreyam Adhikari", "sourceArticle": "https://shreyam1008.com.np/log/metabolism-101/#nutrient-atlas", "credit": "Original chart for Carbon Atlas. Learning framework inspired by Dr. Andy Galpin; classifications refined from the references attached to each entry." }